What does the word patent mean to you? Does it strike you as being something rather remote from your
interests? If it does, stop and think a moment about some of the commonplace things that you use every
day, objects that you take for granted as part of the world around you. The telephone, radio, television, the
automobile, and the thousand and one other things (even the humble safety pin) that enrich our lives
today once existed only as ideas in the minds of men. If it had not been possible to patent their ideas and
thus protect them against copying by others, these inventions might never have been fully developed to
serve mankind. If there were no patent protection there would be little incentive to invent and innovate, for
once the details of an invention became known, hordes of imitators who did not share the inventor's risks
and expenses might well flood the market with their copies of his product and reap much of the benefit of
his efforts.
The technological progress that has made America great would wither rapidly under conditions such as
these. The fundamental principles in the U. S. patent structure came from England. During the glorious
reign of Queen Elizabeth I in England, the expanding technology was furthered by the granting of
exclusive manufacturing and selling privileges to citizens who had invented new processes or tools- a
step that did much to encourage creativity. Later, when critics argued that giving monopoly rights to one
person infringed on the rights of others, an important principle was added to the patent structure: The Lord
Chief Justice of England stated that society had everything to gain and nothing to lose by granting
exclusive privileges to an inventor, because a patent for an invention was granted for something new that
society never had before. Another basic principle was brought into law because certain influential people
in England had managed to obtain monopoly control over such age-old products as salt, and had begun
charging as much as the traffic would bear. The public outcry became so great that the government was
forced to decree that monopoly rights could be awarded only to those who created or introduced
something really unique. These principles are the mainstays of our modern patent system in the United
States. In colonial times patent law was left up to the separate states. The inconsistency, confusion, and
unfairness that resulted clearly indicated the need for a uniform patent law, and the men who drew up the
Constitution incorporated one. George Washington signed the first patent law on April 10,1790, and less
than four months later the first patent was issued to a man named Samuel Hopkins for a chemical process,
an improved method of making potash for use in soapmaking. In 1936 the Patent Office was established
as a separate bureau. From the staff of eight that it maintained during its first year of operation it has
grown into an organization of over 2500 people handling more than 1600 patent applications and granting
over 1000 every week. The Patent Office in Washington, D. C., is the world's largest library of scientific
and technical data, and this treasure trove of information is open for public inspection. In addition to more
than 3 million U. S. patents, it houses more than 7 million foreign patents and thousands of volumes of
technical literature. Abraham Lincoln patented a device to lift steam vessels over river shoals, Mark Twain
developed a self-pasting scrapbook, and millionaire Cornelius Vanderbilt invented a shoe-shine kit. A
patent may be granted for any new and useful process, machine, article of manufacture, or composition of
matter ( a chemical compound or combinations of chemical compounds), or any distinct and new variety;
of plant, including certain mutants and hybrids. The patent system has also helped to boost the wages of
the American worker to an unprecedented level; he can produce more and earn more with the computer,
adding machines, drill press or lathe. Patented inventions also help keep prices down by increasing
manufacturing efficiency and by stimulating the competition that is the foundation of our free enterprise
system. The decades of history have disclosed little need for modification of the patent structure. Our
patent laws, like the Constitution from which they grew, have stood the test of time well. They encouraged
the creative processes, brought untold benefits to society as a whole, and enabled American technology
to outstrip that of the rest of the civilized world.
What is the main idea of this passage?

• A. The Constitution protects the patent system.
• B. Patents are important tools for inventors.
• C. The patent system encourages free enterprise.
• D. Patented inventions protect the inventor, free enterprise, and the creative process.
• E. The patent system in England has been influential in American patent development.

The Galapagos Islands are in the Pacific Ocean, off the western coast of South America.
They are a rocky, lonely spot, but they are also one of the most unusual places in the world. One reason is
that they are the home of some of the last giant tortoises left on earth. Weighing hundreds of pounds,
these tortoises, or land turtles, wander slowly around the rocks and sand of the islands. Strangely, each of
these islands has its own particular kinds of tortoises. There are seven different kinds of tortoises on the
eight islands, each kind being slightly different from the other. Hundreds of years ago, thousands of
tortoises wandered around these islands. However, all that changed when people started landing there.
When people first arrived in 1535, their ships had no refrigerators. This meant that fresh food was always
a problem for the sailors on board.
The giant tortoises provided a solution to this problem. Ships would anchor off the islands, and crews
would row ashore and seize as many tortoises as they could. Once the animals were aboard the ship, the
sailors would roll the tortoises onto their backs. The tortoises were completely helpless once on their
backs, so they could only lie there until used for soups and stews. Almost 100,000 tortoises were carried
off in this way. The tortoises faced other problems, too. Soon after the first ships, settlers arrived bringing
pigs, goats, donkeys, dogs and cats. All of these animals ruined life for the tortoises.
Donkey and goats ate all the plants that the tortoises usually fed on, while the pigs. Dogs and cats
consumed thousands of baby tortoises each year. Within a few years, it was hard to find any tortoise
eggs-or even any baby tortoises. By the early 1900s, people began to worry that the last of the tortoises
would soon die out. No one, however, seemed to care enough to do anything about the problem. More
and more tortoises disappeared, even though sailors no longer needed them for food. For another fifty
years, this situation continued. Finally, in the 1950s, scientist decided that something must be done. The
first part of their plan was to get rid of as many cats, dogs and other animals as they could.
Next, they tried to make sure that more baby tortoises would be born. To do this, they started looking for
wild tortoise eggs. They gathered the eggs and put them in safe containers. When the eggs hatched, the
scientists raised the tortoises in special pens. Both the eggs and tortoises were numbered so that the
scientists knew exactly which kinds of tortoises they had-and which island they came from. Once the
tortoises were old enough and big enough to take care of themselves, the scientists took them back to
their islands and set them loose. This slow, hard work continues today, and, thanks to it, the number of
tortoises is now increasing every year.
Perhaps these wonderful animals will not disappear after all. What happened first?

• A. Tortoises were put onto their backs.
• B. Sailors took tortoises aboard ships.
• C. Settlers brought other animals to the islands.
• D. The tortoise meat was used for soups and stews.
• E. Pigs had been all the sailors had to eat.

King Louis XVI and Queen Marie Antoinette ruled France from 1774 to 1789, a time when the country was
fighting bankruptcy. The royal couple did not let France's insecure financial situation limit their
immoderate spending, however. Even though the minister of finance repeatedly warned the king and
queen against wasting money, they continued to spend great fortunes on their personal pleasure. This
lavish spending greatly enraged the people of France. They felt that the royal couple bought its luxurious
lifestyle at the poor people's expense. Marie Antoinette, the beautiful but exceedingly impractical queen,
seemed uncaring about her subjects; misery. While French citizens begged for lower taxes, the queen
embellished her palace with extravagant works of art. She also surrounded herself with artists, writers,
and musicians, who encouraged the queen to spend money even more profusely. While the queen's
favorites glutted themselves on huge feasts at the royal table, many people in France were starving. The
French government taxed the citizens outrageously. These high taxes paid for the entertainments the
queen and her court so enjoyed. When the minister of finance tried to stop these royal spendthrifts, the
queen replaced him. The intense hatred that the people felt for Louis
XVI and Marie Antoinette kept building until it led to the French Revolution. During this time of struggle
and violence (1789-1799), thousands of aristocrats, as well as the king and queen themselves, lost their
lives at the guillotine. Perhaps if Louis XVI and Marie
Antoinette had reined in their extravagant spending, the events that rocked France would not have
occurred.
The minister of finance tried to curb these royal ___.

• A. enemies
• B. money wasters
• C. aristocrats
• D. spenders
• E. individuals

"Old woman," grumbled the burly white man who had just heard Sojourner Truth speak, "do you think your
talk about slavery does any good? I don't care any more for your talk than I do for the bite of a flea." The
tall, imposing black woman turned her piercing eyes on him. "Perhaps not," she answered, "but I'll keep
you scratching." The little incident of the 1840s sums up all that Sojourner Truth was: utterly dedicated to
spreading her message, afraid of no one, forceful and witty in speech. Yet forty years earlier, who could
have suspected that a spindly slave girl growing up in a damp cellar in upstate New York would become
one of the most remarkable women in American history? Her name then was Isabella (many slaves had
no last names), and by the time she was fourteen she had seen both parents die of cold and hunger. She
herself had been sold several times. By 1827, when New York freed its slaves, she had married and
borne five children. The first hint of Isabella's fighting spirit came soon afterwards, when her youngest son
was illegally seized and sold. She marched to the courthouse and badgered officials until her son was
returned to her. In 1843, inspired by religion, she changed her name to Sojourner (meaning "one who
stays briefly") Truth, and, with only pennies in her purse, set out to preach against slavery. From New
England to Minnesota she trekked, gaining a reputation for her plain but powerful and moving words.
Incredibly, despite being black and female (only white males were expected to be public speakers), she
drew thousands to town halls, tents, and churches to hear her powerful, deep-voiced pleas on equality for
blacks-and for women. Often she had to face threatening hoodlums. Once she stood before armed bullies
and sang a hymn to them. Awed by her courage and her commanding presence, they sheepishly
retreated. During the Civil War she cared for homeless ex-slaves in Washington. President Lincoln invited
her to the White House to bestow praise on her. Later, she petitioned Congress to help former slaves get
land in the West. Even in her old age, she forced the city of Washington to integrate its trolley cars so that
black and white could ride together. Shortly before her death at eighty-six, she was asked what kept her
going. "I think of the great things," replied Sojourner.
The imposing black woman promised to keep the white man-

• A. crying
• B. scratching
• C. searching
• D. hollering
• E. fleeing